Megalithic Cultures in Europe
Megaliths are large stone structures erected by prehistoric people in many parts of Europe and a few places in the Middle East. The monuments were probably used for religious, ritual or astronomical purposes. The word ‘megalith’ comes from the Greek and means ‘large stone’.
Today they attract archeologists, historians and tourists as they offer unique insights into the way of life and spirituality of prehistoric societies and show the engineering and technology of the Stone Age people. They are also frequently located in picturesque landscapes and are often surrounded by mystical legends.
Background
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The megalithic cultures were prehistoric communities that erected megaliths in Europe and parts of the Middle East during the Neolithic 
or New Stone Age period. That began with the Neolithic Revolution, when people developed agriculture and settled near their crops, starting about 10,000 BC in the Fertile Crescent but later in other areas.
There are three main types of megalith: stone circles, dolmens and menhirs.
Stone circles, also known as cromlechs, are a prehistoric, mostly circular arrangement of stones that were used for ritual or astronomical purposes in many cultures, especially in Europe. The term comes from the Welsh (crom = ‘curved’ or ‘circle’ and llech = ‘stone slab’). A chromlech consists of upright menhirs (stone settings) that often form a circle or an oval. They are mainly found in the United Kingdom, Ireland and on the Iberian Peninsula.
Dolmens are prehistoric burial sites consisting of a large block of stone (capstone) supported by several load-bearing stones (pillars). They are often referred to as ‘megalithic tombs’ and are typically part of burial rites. Dolmens were mainly created in the Neolithic and early Bronze Age (around 4000 to 2000 BC) and can be found in many regions of Europe, North Africa and Asia.
Menhirs are large, upright stones that usually stand without any other structure or connection to other stones. They can be found alone or in groups and are often associated with ritual practices. The term ‘menhir’ is humorously popularised by the comic character Obelix from the Asterix series, as he always carries such a stone with him. Menhirs can be found in large numbers in France in the Bretagne region.
The significance of the megaliths is still not fully understood. Many researchers assume that they served as places of worship for ancestor worship or spiritual ceremonies. Other hypotheses assume that they were used for astronomical purposes, as many of the structures are designed to observe celestial events such as the summer solstice. It is assumed that the megalithic cultures were not a uniform culture, but rather a collection of regional groups with similar ritual practices.
In many cultures, large stones were associated with magical powers, making them special ‘places of power’ that were also important for the fulfilment of children's wishes. Menhirs in particular were regarded as symbols of fertility in earlier cultures. The phallic shape of the menhirs fuelled the idea that women could ‘unite’ with them. In many regions of Western Europe, legends have been passed down that hugging and sensual, sinful clinging to certain stones could promote fertility. These stories are often told by tourist guides at these sites.
The stones also play a role in various works of fiction. For example in Diana Gabaldon's Outlander series (both books and TV series) several characters travel through time via the magic of standing stones.
The people who erected these structures had no known written language, and thereby the knowledge of them is limited. Among more familiar cultures who succeeded them were the Old Norse and Goths in northern Europe, and the Celts in western Europe.
The buildings of the European megalithic cultures are shrouded in numerous stories, legends and myths. These tales often reflect the fascination that these monumental structures exerted on later cultures, as their actual purpose and origin remained unclear for a long time. Here are some of the most famous stories and legends:
- Druids and magical rituals: many megaliths are associated with the Druids, especially in regions such as Britain, Ireland and France. It is said that stone circles such as Stonehenge were used by the Druids for ceremonies and rituals, although the megalithic structures are far older than Celtic culture. In some stories, they are regarded as meeting places for magic or as sacred sites where natural forces were channelled.
- Giants as builders: In various European traditions, it is reported that the megaliths were built by giants, as the sheer size of the stones seemed impossible for humans.
- Giants as builders: In various European traditions it is reported that the megaliths were built by giants, as the sheer size of the stones seemed impossible for humans.
- Dancing or cursed people: Some legends say that the standing stones are cursed people who have been turned to stone About the dancing stones (Brittany, France) around Carnac, it is said that the long rows of menhirs represent enchanted hosts or dancing people who were punished by a priest or saint for desecrating Sunday. Similar stories exist for the stone circles in England, where they are often known as ‘The Merry Maidens’ or ‘The Hurlers’.
- Hidden treasures: Many megalithic sites were thought to be places of hidden treasure. It is often said that gold or magical artefacts are hidden in the tombs or under the stones, only accessible through certain rituals or under special circumstances. These stories sometimes lead to looting or destruction.
- Gateways to the Otherworld: In Celtic and other Indo-European traditions, megaliths were often regarded as gateways to other worlds or as places where one could communicate with spirits or ancestors. Many passage graves such as Newgrange (Ireland) or Maeshowe (Scotland) are associated in mythology with the Otherworld (Tír na nÓg in Ireland), a mystical world of youth and immortality. The precise alignments to solstices or equinoxes, as at Newgrange, are often interpreted as indications of a supernatural connection to nature.
- The battle between pagans and Christians: In regions such as France and Spain, there are stories that depict megaliths as sites of conflict between pagan and Christian cultures. It is often said that Christian saints or missionaries destroyed or blessed these ‘pagan’ monuments through miracles.
- The fairies and the little people: In Ireland and Scotland, there are many legends that link megaliths with fairies or ‘the little people’. Burial sites and stone circles are often believed to be their homes or meeting places. It is said that it is bad luck to disturb these sites and that those who attempt to remove stones may be cursed.
- Creation by divine or mythical beings: Some stories tell of the goddess Earth or other mythological figures who erected the stones to honour nature.
These stories show how deeply rooted the megalithic structures are in cultural memory, even if their exact origins remain the subject of research.
Regions
[edit]Only the most important and worthwhile examples of this period are listed here. There are many other objects from this age, which are usually less spectacular, but are in many cases located in scenic surroundings. It is worth looking for more megaliths on Google Maps, for example, especially when visiting Great Britain and Brittany.
Great Britain and Ireland
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Famous megalithic sites include Stonehenge (England), Avebury (England) and Newgrange (Ireland). These sites often have circular arrangements and are centred on astronomical phenomena. There are a large number of stone circles in Great Britain in particular.
Stone circles
[edit]- 1 Stonehenge. Probably the most famous stone circle in the world near Amesbury is a masterpiece of megalithic culture. It probably served as a place of worship, a calendar and possibly also as a burial site, and the arrangement of the stones shows precise astronomical alignments.
- 2 Avebury. Not far from Stonehenge is Avebury (near Marlborough (England), a village surrounded by a huge stone circle. Avebury is less well known, but offers a similarly impressive atmosphere.
- 3 Great Circle at Stanton Drew. One of the largest and oldest stone circles in England near Bristol, with an outer ring and several smaller circles nearby.
- 4 Ring of Brodgar. The Orkney Islands are rich in archaeological treasures, in particular the Ring of Brodgar stone circle and the Maeshowe barrow. Both are surrounded by spectacular landscapes. Especially in summer, the Ring of Brodgar attracts many tourists who want to experience its beauty in the midsummer sun. The Ring of Brodgar is the most northerly large stone circle on the Orkney Islands. The ring was probably used for religious ceremonies.
Dolmens
[edit]- 7 Maeshowe tumulus. The Maeshowe barrow impresses visitors with its monumental architecture and fascinating, mysterious runic inscriptions, which hint at the knowledge and culture of prehistoric societies on the Orkney Islands.
- 8 Skara Brae. Skara Brae is a prehistoric settlement on the Orkney Islands in Scotland, consisting of a series of well-preserved stone dwellings and dating to around 5000 BC, making it one of the oldest examples of human settlement in Europe.
- 9 Dolmens of Poulnabrone. This dolmen in County Clare is an iconic symbol of Irish megalithic culture due to its shape and size. It was built around 4000 BC and contains the remains of over 30 people.
- 10 Newgrange (Brú na Bóinne). The site in County Louth is older than the Egyptian pyramids and impresses with its winter solstice ceremony. Every year on the winter solstice, the sunlight is guided precisely into the burial chamber, which is a highlight for visitors.
- 11 Carrowmore Megalithic Site. It is one of the largest megalithic sites in Europe in County Sligo with around 60 tombs surrounding a central dolmen. It is one of the oldest known megalithic sites in Ireland and dates back to around 3700 BC.
Menhirs
[edit]- 12 Menhir from Devil's Arrows. The three up to 7.6 metre high standing menhirs in Yorkshire probably have a meaning for the solar or lunar year.
- 13 Punchestown Long Stone. At 6.3 metres, it is one of the tallest menhirs in Ireland on the East Coast and Midlands which was probably used for religious or astronomical purposes.
In Denmark, Sweden and Norway there are numerous megalithic tombs and stone circles, often in combination with rock carvings. In Sweden, the Ale's Stones are an impressive ship formation made of stones.
- 14 Ales Stenar. is a famous ship settlement in the form of a long stone circle on the coast, which probably served as a solar calendar. The location near Ystad with a view of the Baltic Sea is picturesque. A visit at sunset offers a spectacular view and shows the stones in a special light.
- 15 Blå Jungfrun. On the island of Blå Jungfrun in the Baltic Sea, there are also smaller stone circles and rock formations that probably served ritual purposes. This island has a mythical reputation and may have been a sacred place in prehistoric times.
Brittany is home to Carnac, the largest known stone field in the world, with thousands of menhirs arranged in rows. Dolmens and stone circles can also be found. In the Finistère department in Brittany, there are still a number of mehirs. In addition to the well-known large menhirs of Brittany, the Languedoc-Roussillon region is home to a large number of smaller, less impressive menhirs.
Menhirs
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- 17 Carnac. The stone fields of Carnac near Auray consist of thousands of menhirs arranged in rows. They extend over several kilometres and represent one of the largest megalithic sites in the world, most of which were created between 5000 and 2000 BC and are among the oldest in Europe.
- 18 Locmariaquer. is known for some of the largest known megaliths, including the Broken Menhir, which was once 20 metres high. The site offers an impressive picture of megalithic structures. Guided tours explain the history of the site and show details such as the elaborate engravings on the stones.
- 19 Menhir of Kerloas. Approximately 9.5 metres. The largest standing menhir in France, known for its impressive size and shape.
- 20 Menhir of Champ-Dolent. 9.3 metres. The menhir is shrouded in legend and is one of the best preserved in France.
- 21 Stone rows of Lagatjar. The Lagatjar stones are located on the Crozon peninsula and consist of several rows of stones and individual monoliths. This arrangement probably has astronomical significance. However, as with many stone circles, the exact function remains a mystery.
Dolmens
[edit]- 22 La Roche aux Fées. This is the largest dolmen in France near Essé, Brittany and consists of 41 upright stones that form a covered corridor 20 metres long. The name means ‘fairy rock’, which refers to the legends surrounding its creation.
- 23 Dolmens of Gavrinis. Gavrinis is particularly popular for its stone decorations. The island on which the dolmen is located can only be reached by boat, which makes the visit a special experience.
- 24 Dolmens de la Pierre Levée. Located in the Pyrénées-Orientales region, the Dolmen de la Pierre Levée is a well-preserved stone table (dolmen) formed from large stone slabs. The structure dates from the Neolithic period and is nestled in a peaceful wooded landscape, making it a lesser-known site and ideal for visitors looking for a quiet and secluded discovery. The hike there offers beautiful views and a touch of history without the crowds.
- 25 Dolmens of Fades. is considered one of the largest and most impressive dolmens in France. It is picturesquely situated on a hill near the village of Pépieux. The complex consists of a long chamber formed by several large stones (orthostats) and is surrounded by a stone mound (tumulus) that originally covered the entire construction.
- 26 Menhir of Clendy. An unusual site in Switzerland with over 40 menhirs, up to 4.5 metres high, erected in prehistoric times.
Megalithic cultural sites such as the Seven Stone Houses in Lower Saxony and the dolmens in the Lüneburg Heath show that northern Germany was also part of this culture.
- 27 Seven stone houses. There are five large megalithic tombs in the Lüneburg Heath, which date back to the Neolithic period and are in a good state of preservation. The graves are surrounded by heathland and woodland.
- 28 Royal tomb of Groß Berßen. It is an impressive megalithic burial site from the Neolithic period, located in the Lüneburg Heath. It is one of the largest and most important megalithic tombs in the region. The site is surrounded by a mound and consists of several large stones that serve as burial chambers. These graves are typically provided with an entrance that indicates the ritual significance and burial practices of the time.
- 29 Large stone tombs on the Buschhöhe. They belong to a larger group of burial sites that reflect the early burial culture of the region. They were often erected in wooded areas and are surrounded by an aura of mystery.
- 30 Devil's stones. The Devil's Stones at Altenburg near Osnabrück are one of the most famous megalithic sites in North Rhine-Westphalia. The name comes from the legends surrounding the stones. The ‘Devil's Stone Hiking Trail’ leads through a scenic area and explains the history and legends of the stones.
- 31 Goseck. The solar observatory at Goseck is one of the oldest known observatories in the world and is often referred to as the ‘German Stonehenge’. The circle consists of palisades and earthen ramparts with a series of gate openings aligned to the sunrise and sunset at the winter solstice. This site dates back to the Neolithic period, around 4900 BC. The positions of the openings and the orientation of the site indicate that it was used for astronomical observations, possibly also for ceremonial or ritual purposes.
- 32 Circular ditch system Pömmelte. The circular ditch complex at Pömmelte is a complex structure with ditches, some of which were completed with posts. The site, which is also known as a ‘ring sanctuary’, dates back to the Bell Beaker culture (around 2300 BC). This site is similar in design and structure to Stonehenge, but consists of wood and trench structures. There is evidence that the site was used for astronomical observations as well as for ritual purposes.
The Iberian Peninsula is home to many dolmens, such as the Dolmen of Menga (Spain) and the Cromlech of Almendres (Portugal), one of the largest stone circles in Europe.
Stone circles
[edit]- 33 Cromlech from Almendres. The Cromlech represents one of the largest stone circle complexes on the Iberian Peninsula. The site is located in the middle of a cork oak forest, with the astronomically orientated stones forming an idyllic backdrop. The site is particularly attractive in the spring and autumn months, when the light falls on the stones in soft rays, further emphasising the mystical atmosphere.
- 34 Cromlech from Portela de Mogos. This smaller but equally impressive site consists of a group of stones arranged in a circular formation. It is thought to have been used for astronomical purposes, similar to other stone circles in the region.
- 35 Cromlech of Vale Maria do Meio. This stone circle, probably from the Middle Neolithic, comprises a group of 13 stones arranged in a loose circle. The site is smaller than Almendres, but it also shows a complex stone setting that probably served cultic or astronomical purposes.
Dolmens
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- 36 Dolmens of Menga. The dolmen of Menga is one of the most important and impressive megalithic monuments in Europe and is located in Antequera in the Spanish province of Málaga. This dolmen is one of the best-preserved prehistoric tombs in Europe and was declared a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2016 along with the nearby dolmens of Viera and El Romeral.
- 37 Dolmens of Soto. Although this dolmen structure is more of a passage grave than a stone circle, its shape and orientation show similarities with other megalithic stone circles. The site is impressive due to its size and the skilful arrangement of the stones.
- 38 Antequera Dolmens. The archaeological sites are characterised by their considerable size and good state of preservation. The landscape is of impressive beauty and the stone buildings of impressive monumentality. The dolmen of Menga is a particularly popular destination, not least because of its monumental stone ceiling, which impressively demonstrates the precision and effort that went into its construction.
Malta's megalithic buildings are unique as they are among the oldest free-standing temples in the world and feature complex, precisely carved structures made of large blocks of stone, indicating an advanced prehistoric civilisation.
- 40 Megalithic temples of Ġgantija. The Ġgantija temples on Gozo, which are among the oldest freestanding monuments in the world, impress with the mysterious origins of this civilisation and the impressive engineering skills of the early advanced civilisation.
- 41 Hypogeum from Ħal Saflieni. The Hypogeum is a unique underground megalithic complex. It is often visited by tourists because of its mystical atmosphere and importance as a place of worship. A guided tour through the hypogeum with its mysterious underground rooms and artistic engravings is particularly impressive.
- 42 Ħaġar Qim. The temple of Ħaġar Qim, which dates back to around 3600 BC, is known for its impressive construction made of large stones and its magnificent location overlooking the sea, which immerses visitors in the mysterious world of prehistoric cultures.
- 43 Mnajdra. The temple complex of Mnajdra, famous for its unique astronomical alignment, attracts visitors who want to learn about the fascinating relationship between architecture and cosmic cycles.
- 44 Temple of Tarxien. They are particularly known for their richly decorated stone carvings, which offer an insight into the art and spirituality of Malta's Neolithic civilisations.
The megalithic cultural buildings in Turkey, especially Göbekli Tepe, are considered to be the oldest known temple complexes in the world and indicate that complex religious structures existed even before the settlement of mankind.
- 45 Lepenski Vir. It is of tourist interest due to its important archaeological sites, which are considered to be one of the oldest known settlements in Europe, with remarkable works of art and unique architecture from the Neolithic period, as well as offering fascinating insights into the life and culture of the earliest European civilisations.
- 46 Kokino (Staro Nagoričane, North Macedonia). An almost 4000-year-old megalithic observatory on a hilltop where markers showing the position of the sun during the solstices and the equinoxes were drawn by the ancients. The site probably had a spiritual significance as well.
- 47 Perperikon. An archaeological site with monumental megalithic structures dating back to the Bronze Age and considered the largest megalithic excavation site in Bulgaria. A steep path and many steps lead from the car park below the archaeological site to the top of the mountain. From there you have a magnificent view of the archaeological site and the landscape. A certain level of physical fitness is required to visit the site. There are only a few souvenir shops at the car park, but no café or drinks outlets. So bring drinking water with you.
- 48 Tatul. The Thracian sanctuary is one of the most impressive megalithic monuments discovered on the territory of Bulgaria. The sanctuary is a massive rock structure and its top is a truncated pyramid. The complex consists of two sarcophagi, a rectangular bed for the main altar and a three metre deep well. It dates from the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th century BC. The site has a car park with benches and tables for picnics. From there it is a 10-minute walk to the archaeological site. There is no café or drinks shop in the small village, so bring what you want to consume with you.
- 49 Göbekli Tepe. It is one of the oldest known religious sites of mankind (around 9600 BC), located in Turkey. It consists of massive stone pillars decorated with symbols and is over 12,000 years old. This complex was probably built before the advent of agriculture and is considered a sacred site. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
- 50 Karahan Tepe. It is a site similar to Göbekli Tepe, with T-shaped monoliths and carved reliefs. It may also have had a ritual or religious significance and provides insight into a similar or even the same culture that built Göbekli Tepe. Here too, large stones were dug into the earth and decorated with symbolic carvings. Age: around 9500 BC. Discovered in 1997.
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- 51 Filitosa. is an important prehistoric site and is one of the most impressive archaeological sites in Corsica. There are numerous menhirs, monoliths and statues with engraved faces and weapons. The statue-menhirs are unique in their kind and offer an insight into the early colonisation of the island. The site dates back to the 6th millennium BC.
- 52 Palaggiu. This area, also located in south-west Corsica, comprises over 200 menhirs, which are arranged in formations and presumably served ritual purposes. Unlike in Filitosa, the stones are mostly rough and without engravings, which makes their function a mystery to this day. The site is less well-known than Filitosa, but is a special tip for travellers who appreciate unspoilt nature and archaeology. There are well signposted hiking trails and a small information point.
- 53 Monte d’Accoddi. is unique in Europe: a stepped pyramid-like construction reminiscent of Mesopotamian ziggurats. A path leads up a ramp and there is an altar at the top, possibly for religious sacrifices. At around 5000 years old, Monte d'Accoddi is considered to be evidence of cultural exchange in the Mediterranean region. The architecture points to influences from the Orient and shows the importance of the island as a crossroads for different cultures.